EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH PRIORITIES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following supplemental information is offered to assist investigators seeking to respond to Request for Applications (RFA) HD-99-012, Development of English Literacy in Spanish-Speaking Children," a joint research initiative by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Child Development and Behavior Branch) and the Department of Education (Office of Educational Research and Improvement). This RFA is published in The NIH Guide to Grants and Contracts, at http://www.nih.gov/grants/guide/index.html. The receipt dates for this RFA are:

• Letter of Intent Receipt Date: September 1, 1999
• Application Receipt Date: November 17, 1999

The Child Development and Behavior Branch (CHDB) of the Center for Research for Mothers and Children (CRMC), National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) within the Department of Education invite research grant applications to develop new knowledge relevant to the critical factors that influence the development of English-language (denoted L2) literacy (reading and writing) competencies among children whose first language (denoted L1) is Spanish. Specifically, NICHD and OERI seek to stimulate systematic, programmatic multidisciplinary research to increase understanding of the specific cognitive, sociocultural and instructional factors, and the complex interactions among these factors, that promote or impede the acquisition of English reading and writing abilities for Spanish-speaking children. It is expected that the research studies and programs stimulated by this initiative will contribute scientific data that bear directly on a number of public policy issues and instructional practices that include, but are not limited to, these overarching questions:

• Are there conditions under which English language literacy skills (reading and writing) are best acquired after oral language, reading and writing capabilities are first developed in Spanish?
• If so, when and how is the transition from Spanish to English best accomplished?
• Are there conditions under which Spanish-speaking children best acquire English language literacy skills through immersion in English oral and written language?
• Are there specific linguistic and cultural advantages that accrue with instructional approaches that develop oral language and literacy skills in both Spanish and English simultaneously (dual language-literacy approaches)?

The following research priorities and examples of research questions are offered to illuminate areas of particular interest to the NICHD and the OERI. These examples are illustrative but not restrictive, nor are they inclusive or exhaustive.

There is a significant lack of reliable and valid instruments, and quantitative and qualitative measurement strategies for the assessment of many of the domains relevant to this RFA. For instance, while many States require the assessment of English-oral language abilities, basic reading skills (decoding, word recognition), and reading comprehension abilities in kindergarten through the primary grades, there is a paucity of Spanish-language instruments with established reliability and validity that can be utilized for the assessment of these domains. Moreover, it is not known whether instruments for specific oral language and literacy domains (reading and writing) that have been standardized on Spanish-speaking children in different regions of the country provide normative data that are applicable and appropriate for Spanish-speaking children in regions or communities not included in the standardization sample. The purpose and scope of this RFA also necessitate that measurement strategies and instruments be identified and/or developed to assess socioenvironmental influences and contexts, including social class, socioeconomic conditions, cultural factors and processes, neighborhood and regional characteristics, social and family group membership, generational influences, and racial and ethnic identity. The development of an appropriate array of quantitative and qualitative measurement strategies for the assessment of oral and written language and socioenvironmental factors and influences will be instrumental in conducting studies that identify and elaborate linguistic, social cultural and environmental risk and protective factors and English-language literacy outcomes for Spanish-speaking children.

Research is encouraged in, but not limited to, the following priorities:

• Studies to determine the extent to which existing reliable and valid Spanish-language instruments and measurement strategies are available for different ages and developmental levels to assess oral language development (to include, but not limited to phonology, semantics, syntax, morphology, morpho-phonology, pragmatics), reading development (print awareness, letter and word level processes, comprehension processes), written language development (orthographic knowledge, spelling abilities, formulation and organization processes, handwriting, conventions of syntax and grammar, thematic maturity);

• Studies to determine whether translation of English-language measures for use with Spanish-speaking children in oral language, reading, and writing domains is appropriate or whether the linguistic structure of the Spanish-language necessitates de novo development of Spanish-specific measures and assessment strategies;

• Studies to determine the extent to which Spanish-language usage differs as a function of region, country of origin, ethnicity, cultural, environmental, generational and familial factors, and whether identified differences inform the development and standardization of instruments and measurement strategies;

• The development, where needed, of quantitative and qualitative instruments, surveys, scales, and other methods to accurately assess social, cultural, and socioenvironmental influences and contexts.

There is a compelling need to identify the ways in which the development of a first language (e.g., Spanish) supports or interferes with learning to read and write in a second language (e.g., English). Currently, there is scant converging information that bears on the relationship between knowledge of first language linguistic, orthographic and literacy skills and the nature, timing, and quality of acquiring linguistic, orthographic, and literacy skills in the childs second language. Directly put, how does the development of literacy skills in Spanish differ from the development of literacy skills in English and how do such differences inform instructional decisions? Studies that investigate the relationships between other native oral and written languages (French, Turkish, Arabic, Japanese, Chinese, etc.) and English-language literacy development could be highly informative vis-a-vis transition issues and are also encouraged if specific linkage can be made to the Spanish to English transition. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies that could address this priority are reflected in the following questions and issues. These examples, are illustrative, not inclusive.

• Are there similarities and differences between Spanish and English in the relative influence of specific oral-language and orthographic skills (phonology, morphology, morpho-phonology, syntax, semantics) on reading and writing skill acquisition at different phases of reading development?

• Are there differences between Spanish and English in the degree to which different language and print concepts predict reading and writing developmental levels in the native language? If so, what are the implications for instructional decisions in both Spanish and English?

• Does the development of Spanish oral-language skills vary as a function of, for example, geographic region, socioeconomic status, generational status, and cultural and family factors, and do these differences parallel those observed in the development of English oral language?

• How much knowledge and what aspects of oral language and reading have students, on average, acquired about Spanish reading at various points in Spanish reading instruction (e.g., by February and June of kindergarten, first, second, third, and fourth grades)? Does this differ for children taught in Spanish only versus Spanish and English simultaneously?

• Are there differences in the rate and quality of oral language development in Spanish and English in Spanish-speaking children with differing degrees of bilingualism and biliteracy? If so, are these differences related to the rate and quality of Spanish and English language reading and writing development?

• Do Spanish-literate children make a more rapid transition to skilled English language reading and writing if they possess explicit knowledge about the differences between Spanish and English orthographies?

• Prior to instruction to develop English-language reading and writing skills, what specific decoding, word identification, and comprehension approaches and strategies do Spanish-literate students employ when asked to read and write in English? Does this vary as a function of age and grade level?

• What conscious metacognitive knowledge about the relationships between Spanish and English oral language and literacy concepts do students have when acquiring English and Spanish literacy concepts simultaneously in contrast to when English literacy instruction is provided following varying degrees of literacy development in Spanish? Is there a relationship between a conscious understanding of English/Spanish contrasts and the rate and quality of English language literacy skill development?

• What proportion of variance in the rate of English-literacy acquisition can be attributed to level of development in Spanish-literacy skills, Spanish oral language skills, and English oral language skills? Is the level of Spanish literacy and/or oral language skills at the introduction of English literacy instruction a better predictor of English literacy acquisition than the rate of ongoing acquisition of Spanish literacy skills, or vice versa?

It is understood that a comprehensive understanding of how Spanish-speaking children acquire English literacy skills must incorporate knowledge of cultural, social, and socioenvironmental factors and how such factors directly influence reading and writing development in both languages. Within this context, descriptive, ethnographic, epidemiological, and experimental studies are encouraged to address the following types of questions and issues.

• How does social class, socioeconomic conditions, cultural factors and processes, social organization, social networks, neighborhood and regional characteristics, social and family group membership, and cultural and ethnic identity influence the development of reading and writing skills in both Spanish and English? What are the specific inter-relationships among economic, social, cultural, and environmental influences that predict reading and writing development in Spanish and English? Do these relationships vary across regional settings (e.g., urban, rural, metropolitan)?

• How do families and care givers structure Spanish-speaking childrens general language-learning environments and specific oral and written language experiences before entry into school and after initiation of formal schooling and do these practices influence the development of reading and writing skills in Spanish and English?

• Do family/care giver language-literacy interactions vary as a function of cultural and linguistic heritage (i.e., Mexican-American heritage, Puerto Rican-American heritage), immigrant status, generational factors, region (i.e, Southwest, Northeast, West Coast/urban, rural, metropolitan), ethnic and class identity, and/or parental educational and literacy levels in Spanish and English?

• How does immigration status, migrant status, and degree of transiency influence the development of literacy development in Spanish and English? What are the effects of linguistic variation that might be encountered when moving from one region to another? While transience would be expected to complicate language and particularly literacy development, are there protective factors that can help mediate the effects of changing schools, neighborhoods, and regions?

A major priority of this RFA is to determine how reading instruction should be provided for children whose initial oral language development is in Spanish. While it is known that Spanish and English differ with respect to linguistic structure, it is not clear how such differences inform the design of instructional formats and strategies to teach reading and writing skills in either Spanish or English. For example, is Spanish more phonemic or syllabic, and which unit should be emphasized when learning to read in Spanish? What are the instructional implications of similarities and differences in Spanish and English in phonology, semantics, syntax, orthography? It also remains unclear whether English-language literacy skills (reading and writing) are most efficiently acquired by Spanish-speaking children after oral and written skills are developed in Spanish, whether immersion in English oral and written language instruction is more efficacious, or whether Spanish and English oral and written language abilities should be acquired simultaneously.

With this as background, this RFA seeks to stimulate research to address the following overarching question: For which children whose first language is Spanish, are which instructional approaches or combination of approaches, provided in which linguistic context or combination of contexts, most beneficial at which stages/phases of reading development? Studies that address, but are not limited to, the following questions and issues are encouraged:

• What is the effect of different instructional formats/program components/strategies on Spanish and English literacy development, from early childhood on, and how do different instructional features interact with child, home, community, and school resources, and teacher factors?

To address this question, applicants are encouraged to assess a range of instructional options and combinations including classroom approaches, home intervention programs and the like. Completely randomized instructional trials are encouraged, although quasi-experimental intervention designs are certainly appropriate given adequate control over threats to internal and external validity. Longitudinal instructional/intervention studies are clearly relevant to describing amount and rate of growth in literacy skills over time and in determining generalization and maintenance of skills development over time and across settings. Both quantitative and qualitative assessment and data analytic methods are encouraged. A major challenge for applicants responding to this RFA is to develop theoretically and conceptually coherent instructional/intervention studies that justify and clearly describe the most meaningful and informative comparisons.

• How do deficits in information processing abilities (i.e., phonological processing, listening comprehension, orthographic processing and memory, spatial and temporal processing) influence reading development in Spanish? In English? Are certain instructional/intervention approaches/methods/strategies more efficacious with particular information processing profiles? Can type and severity of processing deficits predict response to intervention? Do these predictions differ with respect to Spanish-language or English-language reading?

• Are certain strengths and deficits in component oral language skills (phonology, semantics, syntax) related to different reading (e.g., decoding, word identification, fluency, comprehension) and writing (e.g., spelling, formulation and organization, thematic maturity) abilities and disabilities? Do these relationships differ in Spanish and English?

• Do variations in the degree of explicitness of reading instruction interact with information processing strengths and weaknesses? If so, are these variations different for Spanish and English?

• How does the timing of the transition to English influence literacy development in both Spanish and English? What are the optimal instructional strategies that can facilitate the transition from Spanish to English? Is there an optimal timing and sequencing of instruction? Once a student makes the transition to English literacy, what are the advantages and disadvantages for continuing Spanish language reading and writing instruction?

• Are there threshold levels of oral English proficiency and Spanish language literacy that are required for successful transition to, and satisfactory achievement in, English literacy? How are these threshold levels best assessed?

• To what extent should absolute level of oral English proficiency and relative proficiency in English and Spanish determine whether a limited-English-proficient child receives beginning and early literacy instruction in English?

• Are there long-term literacy consequences of being taught in English only? Being taught both Spanish and English reading skills simultaneously? Are there cultural ramifications that accrue to these types of instructional decisions?

• Is there differential response to instructional program components as a function of age, gender, SES, and the co-occurrence of additional academic deficiencies (i.e., math deficits)?

• What is the optimal linguistic and instructional background and experience that teachers should possess in order to ensure the development of English reading and writing skills in Spanish-speaking children. How is this background and experience best developed?

Contemporary electrophysiological and neuroimaging research, coupled with sophisticated neuropsychological tools, offer exciting research possibilities for noninvasive study of brain structure and function in vivo, particularly as new technology in image acquisition and image analysis is developed. While several noninvasive structural and functional imaging studies are currently underway with English-speaking children and adults to identify neural signatures for componential reading behaviors before and after intervention, similar programs of research have not yet been developed for Spanish-speaking children acquiring both Spanish and English literacy skills. This RFA seeks to stimulate research to better define the neurophysiological basis for first and second oral and written language acquisition, and how the brain accommodates more than one linguistic code. Of particular interest are:

• Hypothesis-driven studies combining imaging, neuropsychological methods, measurement and activation of oral and written language behaviors, and well-defined instructional reading protocols that can demonstrate specific and predictable changes in the relationships between structure and function in different regions of the brain over the course of development, especially as they relate to the acquisition of componential oral and written language behavior as a function of reading instruction.

• Research on brain mechanisms (e.g., structural, functional, electrophysiological, neurochemical) underlying the development, regulation, and modulation of behaviors critical to reading development in both Spanish and English. For example, how do deficits in information processing abilities (e.g., phonological processing, listening comprehension, visual perception, orthographic processing and memory, spatial and temporal processing) relate to neurobiological data obtained via non-invasive structural and functional neuroimaging studies, and to genetic studies?